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Reading the literature concerning military training written in Tudor and Stuart England was an essential element in the preparation of turning an inexperienced, young man into a soldier. There was a substantial military decline in the number of recruits and a lack of formal training which caused major concern in the English government.¹ The country was a "land utterly unprepared for war."² Traditionally, the government used the quasi-feudal system to recruit soldiers. This system "predominated in the early Tudor period"³ and it involved the raising of men from the ranks of their able-bodied tenants to serve in their retinues.⁴ However, the tenants believed that their leases did not mention any military obligations and their landlords had no right to demand such services.⁵ But England's military weakness in the mid-Tudor period should "not lay merely [on] the shortage of able and willing soldiers but also in the inefficiency and complexity of her military organization."⁶ The English government needed to increase it's fighting strength. Jeremy Goring laid most of the blame on the government for it's military decline, with a justifiable explanation. Between 1536-1558, England saw four major rebellions, two serious invasion scares and the loss of Calais. It was evident that the government and the people of England would give much thought to matters of military security.⁷ The English government therefore, was fortunate enough to receive able-bodied recruits to defend their country.

However, the English government still faced another substantial problem. They were not prepared for matters pertaining to war. Richard Morison observed that many of the gentry, when called to arms at the time of the Pilgrimage of Grace, could not even sit on a horse properly.⁸ Hence, how were the recruits going to be trained to fight and serve their country? Intellectually! "The country was prepared by literature...with the latest theory of the science of war,⁹ with narratives of current European campaigns...and with the social and moral dangers that attended war."¹⁰ J. R. Hale mentioned that "formal military education of potential and serving army officers is rightly associated with...large native standing armies and with the widening influence of scientific and technological ideas."¹¹ Charles Oman has stated that "the next really important date in military history is that of the invention of the bayonet, which changed the face of war and made every musketeer his own pikeman-for essentially the period between 1494 to 1690 [was] the period of pike and musket."¹² The literature was important because it trained men in the most advanced schools, making them familiar with the principles, practice and technology of modern war.¹³

Military literature written by contemporaries such as Henry Hexham, Robert Ward, John Bingham and Richard Elton, according to Barbara Donagan were excellent in their time but "were useless when France had become the new exemplar of the art of war"¹⁴ during the Hundred Years' War.¹⁵ Fortunately, other contemporaries like John Fairfax, John Cruso, author of Militarie Instructions for the Cavalrie; Bariffe, author of Militarie Discipline; and Gervase Markham, author of The Soldier's Grammar, (along with several other works of literature) had an excellent insight in the new "science of war."

Donagan and Goring provide an excellent overview on the importance of military training by means of literature, while Oman and Hale discuss the significance of technological change and it's influence on the English military. That is why it is crucial to discuss Gervase Markham's military document in a much broader sense. Markham's book, The Sovldier's Accidence deserves such attention. It is an important reference in the study of military culture, life and training.

Military life and culture are important aspects in Tudor and Stuart England. Chivalric culture changed dramatically in Caroline England after the accession of Charles I.¹⁶ He made these political changes to improve England's military and political, life and culture. This chapter will focus on the importance of cultural change in accordance to the English military along with the positive influence it had on the nation's military system. It will also discuss the soldier's experiences in relation to discipline and misfortune in the military during the Hundred Years' War (1422-1453), the English Civil Wars (1638-1651), and the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Discipline and hardship were important aspects in the educational preparation of soldiers, making documents written by military strategists like Gervase Markham, all the more significant.

The English military lacked discipline during the Tudor and Stuart period. At most times, this was due to the inadequate pay that the soldiers received¹⁷ or the terrible working conditions which they had to endure. During the reign of Richard I, a handful of rules had been set up in which English soldier's had to oblige. Some soldiers needed to be disciplined for various reasons; if they committed non serious offences like running away from duty or falling asleep on night watch; while others committed serious offences; murder, assault, rape and theft.¹⁸ Therefore, the "codes of war [were instituted offering] protections of person and property, both civilian and soldier, and...prohibitions against certain kinds of conduct."¹⁹

Soldiers were nevertheless permitted to plunder a city or town if the besieged community refused to surrender. The captain or commander in charge would give the signal to his soldiers who were then allowed to destroy the town and kill everyone who stood in their path. "If the besieges were forced to storm, then anything short of [murder, devastation], rape or mutilation was permissible."²⁰ This term was called the cry of havoc; a signal used for every man to forget fighting and begin looting.²¹ There were provisions made against soldiers who did not wait for the havoc cry or who cried havoc without authorization from their commander.²² If a soldier committed this offence, he would be "imprisoned and...punished by the King's will" which usually resulted in death by hanging.²³

During Richard II's reign, the king had dictated, "that no one be so hardy as to cry Havoc is under pain of losing his head, and that shall be the beginners of the said cry shall likewise be beheaded and that their bodies likewise be hanged up by the arms.^"24

Henry V's code seemed a little more permissive towards the men who took up the cry of Havoc, but remained rigid against those who shouted the cry without permission. His code stated, "the death penalty is retained for the principal offender...also if anyone shall be found to have in any manner begun the clamour called Havoc without our especial license...shall be punished with death, and his followers with arrest of body and goods and to be diligently kept in the custody of the constable and marshal, till they have been fined with them for the offence.^"25

Infractions which may seem irrelevant in today's society and offences that would not be considered a crime, were perceived differently in the Tudor and Stuart period. For example, cursing and gambling were not allowed by a man serving in the English military. Bishop Latimer proclaimed, "The decline of archery was a symptom of the general decline of morality: archery was a gift of God that He hath given us to excel all other nations withal, but now an ungodly generation had taken up whoring in towns instead of shooting in the fields. Justices now, be no justices, Latimer complained. Let them...be sent some sharp reminder of their duty: Charge them upon their allegiance that this singular benefit of God may be practiced.^"26

If soldiers were caught gambling, they would have to "[forfeit] their winnings and were imprisoned for eight days on the first offence; and on the second offence [the] penalty was a month in the gaol and the loss of a month's wages-half to the Crown and half to the informer; and on the third offence [they would be] imprisoned at the King's pleasure, and suffered whatever other punishment the King [dictated]."²⁷

John Fairfax's "New Model Army" (1645-1653) imposed severe measures against thieves, rebels and cowards. Strict codes applied for soldiers whose personal conduct employed severe punishments. "Deserters, mutineers and plunderers were shot."²⁸

Blasphemy was a crime that was dealt with quite often and in a crude manner. "A man unfortunate enough to be convicted had his tongue pulled out of his mouth with surgeon's pincers and bored through with a hot iron. The speech impediment he was left with was a permanent reminder to him and his comrades of the gravity of taking the Lord's name in vain. Officers were occasionally cashiered for quarreling and falsifying their musters; drunkards were made to ride the wooden horse with their head strapped to their heels, and with papers pinned to their hats describing their crime."²⁹

This form of punishment was, to some extent, designed to serve as an example for other would be offenders to think twice before committing an appalling crime.

Some of these forms of discipline were harsh, however, they did not compare to what happened to a soldier if he committed an act of murder after a soldier surrendered. Military codes during the time allowed a soldier to surrender; thereupon he would be granted quarter. To grant an enemy quarter was a guarantee that his life would be spared.³⁰ In one incident during the English Civil War, after several soldiers had surrendered, they expected mercy, but instead they were tortured.

"They were bound together and stripped naked. [It was very cold during the] beginning of March...and many of them [were] wounded. After an hour, the word was given-that is, it was an official decision...that they should be left to the mercy of the common soldiers, who presently fell upon them, wounding them grievously, and drove them into a cellar unfinished, wherein was stinking water, the house being on fire over them, when they were...presently massacred. Most of the victims were clubbed to death."³¹

If a soldier did not grant an enemy quarter after he had surrendered and was killed, than that soldier would be punished. His punishment (which was cruel and hideous) did however, fit the crime. The government would not tolerate such behaviour. Hence a "convicted murderer was bound to his victim's body and thrown into the sea."³² Most of the time, a convicted killer would be either killed, tortured or mutilated.

All forms of discipline did not end with death, destruction and devastation. During the English Civil Wars, as mentioned earlier, soldiers had to be disciplined because of their personal demeanor; cursing, whoring, and drunkenness.³³ Their punishment was compulsory attendance of mass every Sunday morning. On the beginning of each month, communion was celebrated which all officers and men had to attend. On the second Sunday of each month, chaplains were ordered to read out loud the Military Orders and Articles Established by His Majesty for the Better of his Majesty's Army.³⁴

The soldiers' experiences in the various wars that took place between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries were dreadful. Eighty-seven per cent of the fighting during the English Civil Wars took place between the months of April and November. During the Thirty Years War, sixty-seven per cent of the fighting occurred between the same months.³⁵ Still, during the winter months, some battles were fought. Some soldiers died due to the cold; they did not receive enough sleep or food to carry on with their duties. Charles Carlton stated that "war threatens death or horrid wounds, noises, sights and fears that those innocent of battle cannot imagine, and those who have survived cannot forget. War is so obscene that it is pornographic."³⁶ He went on to say that the "conditions were so bad that to stay alive even senior officers had to dig fortifications and forage for themselves."³⁷ In a single year, ninety soldiers had been buried in St. Martin's due to overcrowding which produced disease and accidents.

Chivalric culture was correspondingly important in English military life and culture in the seventeenth century. "During the decade of the Thirty Years' War, to be chivalric was to be associated with support for English military intervention against Catholic forces of the Empire."³⁸ Military and political culture were important in Caroline England. Charles I made political changes that would benefit the country's military organization. He opened the gates of literature, art and the theatre to the English people. "Court patrons continued to sponsor the production of...traditional genres of chivalric literature"³⁹ that of the prose romance. Literature written of a military nature was especially important.

The accession of Charles I also saw the end of "The Tournament," an expensive courtly display when the "monarch presented himself in heroic guise as Renaissance triumphator."⁴⁰ The tournament was consequently replaced by the masque, which was essentially a mock tournament.⁴¹ The masque was important to military life and culture because it assisted in the education of soldiers, especially in peacetime. "The procession around the tiltyard, that ritual of the military sport of the tournament, now served to celebrate the Caroline peace."⁴²

Military life in Tudor and Stuart England was difficult and traumatic on the soldiers. Many were killed because they were not trained properly or had disobeyed orders; some died due to starvation or exposure to cold temperatures. The people of England also faced the atrocities of war during the era of the English Civil Wars. "They were a complex series of wars, in which men and women killed and were killed, had their bodies maimed, and had to endure some of the most traumatic experiences any human being can face."⁴³ "It is the actualities that make war so complicated and so difficult."⁴⁴ Markham's book, The Sovldier's Accidence, is important because it prepared soldiers for the "actualities of war," the discipline and sacrifice that they would have to face, along with the misfortune that attended war.

In the 1500s, there was a growing concern for the English monarchy that the country was not prepared for military battle: whether military battle involved the defence of England from a foreign or domestic onslaught; or if it involved the defeat of a foreign nation for the purpose of military, economic or religious conquest. There were several reasons for England's concern. The country lacked the manpower needed for a standing army. In the 1540s and 1550s, agrarian workers refused to take part in the military and bubonic plague and the much deadlier sweating sickness spread throughout the country.⁴⁵ According to one observer, "the [sweating] sickness carried off about a third of the realm."⁴⁶ Another reason for military decline in England was a soldier's hope of reward.⁴⁷ Sir Thomas Wyatt the younger stated that some means "should be devised of enlisting only those who were joyful and desirous to serve their prince as men of war for his ordinary wages."⁴⁸ Although this method of recruitment seemed idealistic and logical, England could not pick and choose; they had to settle for the men that registered.

But, these brave and adventurous young men still needed formal training to defend England; and themselves against their enemies. The Hundred Years' War is a prime example of England's military incompetence. The main reason why the English failed in this conflict was "the old English system of tactics, the game of the defensive battle."⁴⁹ England eventually lost the war because she was too defensive and their soldiers were not prepared for the tactics of modern war. Therefore, military theorists like Ward, Bingham and Elton expanded their philosophy to English military commanders. However, their training methods became obsolete.⁵⁰ Gervase Markham (along with other military contemporaries) adapted to the new science and art of modern war. Markham was born about 1568. He was the brother of Francis and the third son of Robert Markham of Cottam, Nottinghamshire. During his early years Gervase Markham followed the career of arms in the Low Countries and had a captaincy under the Earl of Essex in Ireland. He was a scholar, acquainted with Latin, French, Italian, Spanish and Dutch. Markham was a poet and a dramatist who was not afraid of dealing with sacred topics: a student of agriculture and a champion horse breeding and horse-racing. In 1593, he revised "Thyrsis and Daphne" for the press. Two years later he published a poem titled "The most Honorable Tragedie of Sir Richard Grinvile Knight" (1595) which was dedicated to Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton. A Mr. Fleay deduces an unlikely argument to prove that Markham and Shakespeare were rivals for Southampton's favour, and that Shakespeare reflected on Markham and his sonnets.

Markham published several other poems: and books including The English Arcadia alluding to his beginning from Sir Phillip Sydney's ending (1607). He edited Barnabe Googe's translation of The Art of Husbandry (1614), Cheape and Good Husbandry (1614), The Country Farm, (1616) along with several books that were written in the interests of agriculture.

During Markham's military life he wrote four books: Honour in his Perfection⁵¹ (1624), The Sovldier's Grammar (1626-7, 1639 in two parts) The Souldier's Exercise in three books (1639 3rd edit. 1641) and The Sovldier's Accidence (1625).⁵² The Sovldiers Accidence is a brief and concise account of the appropriate techniques that a soldier should follow.

Gervase Markham's book was written specifically for the captains in England's military to educate their soldiers.⁵³ Markham stated, "The Captaines of the men to be trained for the Warres (whether they be Muster-Masters, or other private commanders) have two things referred [u]nto them, that is the sorting of Armes, and the Formes of Trayning."⁵⁴

Markham's work also referred to the proper and effective procedure that soldiers should fire their muskuets and pikes, how they should march and how ranks and files should be directed. For example, "Open your Files. Open to the right hand. Open to the left. Or to any order as aforesaid."⁵⁵ Markham also discusses the conduct in which postures are to be performed in marching. "Shoulder your musquet, and carry your rest in the right hand. Levell your Musquet. Sloape your Musquet."⁵⁶

Markham displays a table which is an outline; somewhat of a military offensive plan. It explains the duties that the soldiers had to perform which correspond to the numbers that are listed in the table.

The Sovldiers Accidence, moreover, deals with disciplinary measures that the soldiers encountered and the measures that they inflicted on an enemy soldier; that being if an enemy did not surrender it would be lawful to kill him.⁵⁷ The title of the book also refers to the words or the language that should be used to train the soldiers.⁵⁸

He turned to literature in search of the means of subsistence. Prior to writing reference works on military education, Markham had written several books on family life and horse breeding. The main reason why Markham had written books on military literature is he had sought to change England's military position and status in Europe.

Essentially, The Sovldiers Accidence is a fundamental reference work and an understanding of the new science of war that began in the Tudor and Stuart period.

Note: In my edited version of Gervase Markham's The Solvdier's Accidence my footnotes will appear in brackets.

The Captaines of the men to be Trained for the Warres (whether they bee Muster-Masters, or other private Commanders) have two things referred vnto them⁵⁹ that is, sorting of Armes, and the Formes of Trayning.

For the Sorting of Armes, it is good proportion⁶⁰ to have a Companie equally compounded of armed men and Shot, the armed men to bee all Pikes (except the Officers). The shot to be at least halfe Musquets, the other halfe Harquebushes, but if the Shot could be two parts Musquets, it were better, but if all Musquets, then best of all.

Also care is to be had what men are put to every kinde of Armes, the strong, tall, and best persons to be Pikes the squarest and broadest will be fit to carry Musquets, and the least and nimblest may if necessitie compell bee turned to the Harquebush; But aboue all other respects, it is to be considered to what Armes every man doth best frame himself, for which cause it is not amissle, that the Captaine see the same men to vse seueral Armes before he doe appoint them certainly to carry any one.

Next he shall see that every man be well and sufficiently Armed with good and allowable Armes; That is to say, all his Pikemen shall have good Combe- caps for their heads, well lined with quilted Caps, Curaces for their bodies of nimble and good mould, being high pike proofe; large and well compast Gordgets for their Neckes, Fayre and close joyned Taches, to arme to the mid- thigh, as for the Pouldron or the Vantbrace, they may be spated, because they are but cumbersome. All this Armour is to be rather of Russet, Sanguine, or Blacke colour, then White, or Milld, for it will keepe the longer from rust.

These shall have strong, straight, yet nimble Pikes of Ash-wood, well headed Steele, and armed with plates downward from the head, at least foure foote, and the full size or length of every Pike shall be fifteene foote, beside his head.

These Pikemen shall also have good, sharpe, and broade Swords (of which the Turkie or Bilboe are best) strong Scabbards, chapt with Iron, Girdle, Hangers, or Bautricke of strong Leather; and lastly, if to the Pikemans headpiece be fastened a small ring of Iron; and to the right side of his Backpeece (below his Girdle) and Iron hooke, to hang his Steele cap vpon, it will be a great ease to the Souldier, and a nimble carriage in the time of long Marches.

All his Musquetiers shall be armed in good combe-caps upon their Heads. About their bodies Bautrickwise from the left shoulder under the right arme, they shall carry Bandiliers of broad Leather, having made fast unto them at least twelve or thirteene charges of wood or horne, well covered with Leather, and hanging by large long strings, that with ease they may be brought to the mouth of the Peece. And these Charges must containe Powder according to the bore and bignesse of the Piece by due measure.

They shall also have Swords, Girdles, Hangers, or Bautrickes, and Bullet bags, in which they shall carrie their Moulds, Bullets, Wormes, Screwes, Rammer, and Priming Iron.

Also they shall have good and sufficient Musquets, of true size and bore, with cleane Barrels, and straight scouring sticks, headed at the one end with Rammers of horne, sutable to the bore of the Piece, and at the other, with boxes of iron in which to screw their wormes, iron Rammers, and the like. The cockes and Trickers of the Piece (for Seares are not good) shall be nimble to goe and come, and the Stocks shall be straight, and of very found wood either Walnut- tree or Beech.

Lastly, for their right hands they shall have Rests of Ash-wood, or other rough wood, with iron Pikes in the neather end, and halfe hoopes of Iron about the rest the Musquet on, and double strong stringes fastned neere there unto, to hang about the arme of the Souldier when at any time hee shall haue occasion to traile the same; And the length of these Rests shall be sutable to the stature of the man, bearing his Piecce so, as hee may discharge it without stooping.

The Hargobussires shall be armed like Musquets; The Rest onely excepted, and the quantitie of the Piece, and the Charges duely considered.⁶¹

Your Halberdier shall be armed in all points like your Pike, onely in stead of the Pike he shall eary a faire Halberd, that is strong, sharpe and well armed with plates of iron, from the Blade at least two foot downeward vpon the Staffe, and fringed or adorned according to pleasure; And these Halbreds doe properly belong vnto the Seriants of Companies, who by reason of their much imployment are excused from Armes; Otherwise in the day of Battaile, or in the Battaile they are for guard of the Ensigne, or matter of execution, and then to bee armed as is aforesaid.⁶²

The Ensigne or Bearer of the Captaines colours, shall bee armed at all pieces to the mid-thigh, as Head-peece, Gorget, Curaces, Pouldrons, Vantbranes, and Taces, with a laire Sword by his side, and his Captaines Colours or Ensigne in his hand.⁶³ The Lieutenants of Companies shall be armed like the Ensigne-bearer, and his weapon shall be a faire guilt Partizan.⁶⁴

The Captaines shall be armed as the Lieutenants onely as much richer as they please, and their weapons to lead with, shall bee Featherftaues; But their weapons to sure or encounter the enemy with, shall be faire Partizans of strong and short blades; well guilt and adorned, according to their owne pleasures.⁶⁵

For the Formes of manner or Trayning; That forme is onely to be followed, which shall be soonest and earliest learnd, and of most vse for all kind of service whatsoeuer, and which I take to bee this Forme following.⁶⁶

First you shall draw your Company into two Battalions, or square Bodies (the Pikes by themselues, and the Shot by themselves) which Bodies shall consist of Ranks and Files, and you shall draw them foorth by Files or tens, man after man, or if they be much disorderly and vncapable, then draw them forth by halfe Files or fiues, and when they are so placed, by doubling those halfe Files, you may bring them to whole Files; which done, then placing the Pikes in the midst, wing them on either hand with your Shot, wherein if you have Harquebushes (which are now out of use with us) you shall then give to your Musquetires the prioritie of place, that, is they shall make the outmost Files both of the right and left hand.⁶⁷

Now for a Ranke, you shall vnderstand it is a Row of men placed Pouldron to Pouldron, or Shoulder to Shoulder, their faces being directed all one way; And a File is a Sequence of men standing one behind another, Backe to belly, extending from the first to the last man; And it is taken from the French word la Fila signifiyng a Thridd, because men stand long wise and straight like a thrid, and the Files consist of single men overthwart.

Now these Files in some Discipline are called Flankes, because they doe flanker, or wall in the Battalia, and the Rankes are called Fronts, because they stand formost and doe as it were affront the Battayles, and looke vpon the enemy, but in truth none can properly be called the Front but the Ranke which standeth formost, nor any File be called a Flanke, but those which stand outmost, yet all are Ranks, and all are Files; and therefore those two names are without contradiction. Now lastly you shall understand, that a Ranke may consist of as many men as you please (according to the number of your company). But a File (however the Spaniards and Italians vse it in uncertaine depth) ought never to be aboue ten persons deepe (except it be in marching or in most especiall service, where advantage of ground requireth the contrary). The reason thereof, being that the first man having done his dutie in discharging his piece, may in the space that nine other men shall do their duties, and discharge their pieces distinctly one after another, be againe in readings & make his first place good, there to discharge his piece againe.68 Besides it is the readiest and best way for the drawing of Groffes and great nimbers, into any forme that you please, every hundred men make a full Square, that is to say, just ten every way.

This done you shall divide one hundred men into foure Corporall shipps or Squadrons, and every Squadron, into as many Files as the number wil beare, and every File into Fellow ships or Cameradoes. The Corporall of every Squadron, shall be the leader of the Chiefest file of the Squadron, and the Lanspresado (who in the Corporalls duties) shall leade another file, and the most suufficient Gentlemen of every Squadron shall be the leaders of the rest.

Now for the especiall duties of these two officers (which is the Corporall, and the Lanspresado) you shall understand that the Corporalls chiefest dutie is upon guards at night, after the watch is fer, and sentinells placed, where so soone as the Sentinell shall call upon any approach, he shall immediately goe with his Sword drawne, or in eseciall cases (where the Enemy lodgeth neare) with a guard of two at least (being a Pike and a Shot) unto the Sentinell, and making his Guard stand upon their guard, he shall place the point of his sword to the breast of him that is to give the Word, whether he be Rounder, or other private passenger, and so with his eare to his mouth very closely receive the Word, which if it be right, he shall give the parrie passe; if otherwise, he shall take him prisoner and disarme him, and either keepe him upon his guard, or els deliver him to his superior Officer: But if any resistance shall be offered, then it shall be lawful for him to kill him.⁶⁹

Also the Corporall shall in the time of service see that every Souldier in his Squadron have his Armes neare, cleane and handsome, that they be not unfurnished of powder, March, and Bullet; and the Lanspresado (as was before said) shall in the absence of the Corporall doe all the Corporalls duties, and in the time of rest he shall call upon his Squadron, and see them dresse, trimme, and scoure their Armes and Weapons, and teach them how best to doe the same. And also he shall see them cast their Bullets, if need require, and to such as are ignorant, teach them how to doe the same, and shew them how to scoure their Pieces, and oyle them, and in time of neccessitie, or upon Cloying, how to unbreeetch them.⁷⁰

The Companie being thus divided, In the Trayning foure principall things are to be taught.⁷¹

1. First, the Carriage and use of Armes, conteined in divers Postures or Stations, expressing the formes of men in Armes.

4. And fourthly, all the sounds or beting as of the Drumme, and ordinairie words of direction (which are out Vocabula ariis) and how by the drumme, or the voice of a Commader, to move and obey the direction.⁷²

The use of Pikes is either in receiving or giving a charge; By taught the first, the Souldier learnes to withstand Horse; By the second, to encounter with the enemies Pikes, in which the use of Armes is most in knowing when and how every man, and so every Ranke should give his push.⁷⁴

In teaching the use of Shot, the Souldier must first learne how to carry his Piece, then how to take his levell, and how and when to give his volley⁷⁵ with those in his Ranke.⁷⁶ All which shall be more plainly described when wee come to speake of Postures: And this part of Instruction is the proper office of the Serieants of Companies, for they should both teach the Shot the use of their Armes, and be their Leaders in Service, if by an especiall commandment, a superior Officer be not appointed.

In teaching to give volleys the ancient and vulgat manner of discipline (which is that the whole volley shall be given of all the Shot in one Battalia, or Troop, at one instant, as well of them behinde as before) is vtterly to be condemned; For either the hindmost must venture to shoot their fellowes before through the heads, or els will overshoot, and so spend their Shot unprofitably: Besides, the volley being once given, the enemy comes on without impeachment or annoyance; But in stead of this kind of volley at once (which onely serves to make a great crack) let the first Ranke onely five their volley; and if the Battalia march, then that Ranke which hath given their volley to stand, and the second to passe through it, and so give their volley and then to stand, and the third to come up, and so consequently all the Rankes.⁷⁷

But if the Battalia stand, then the first Ranke having given their volley, shall fall backe to the Reare, either in Wheele or in Counter-march (according to the number of persons in the Ranke).⁷⁸ And the second Ranke come into their places, and so the third, and fourth, till the first Ranke be come to their places againe, and so to continue to the end of commandment.

But if the Battalia shall fall backe or retire and loose ground; then shall all the Shot stand still, and no man advance a foote of ground.⁷⁹ But the first Ranke in its due place shall give their volley and then fall backe behinde the last Ranke, and then the second Ranke shall give their volley in their due place, and so fall behinde the first, and in the same manner all the rest, till they have lost so much ground as to the Commander shall seeme convenient: And so the volley shall be still continued, whether in Marching, Standing, or Retyring, and the enemy never free from annoyance; All which is easily performed, if before the Motion you doe make all your Shot open their Files well, either one or the other hand.

There are two other wayes of giving site, the one upon advancement, the other, upon swift and speedy retrayt: That upon advancement towards an enemy when your men skirmish loose and disbanded, must be done by Rankes in this manner; Two Rankes must alwayes make ready together, and advance tenne paces forwards before the bodie, at which distance a Sergeant or (when the body is great) some other officer must stand, to whom the Musquetiers are to come up before they present and give fire; first, the first Ranke, and whilest the first gives fire, the second Ranke keepe their Musquets close to their rests, and their pans guarded; and as soone as the first are falne away, the second presently present and give fire, and fall after them: Now as soone as the two first Rankes doe move from their places in the Front, the two Rankes next it must unshoulder their Musquets, and make read, so as they may advance forwards tenne paces, as before, as soone as the two first Rankes are fallen away, and are to doe in all points as the former; so all the other Rankes through the whole division must doe the same by twoes one after another.⁸⁰

The manner of giving fire in a swift retrayt is as the devision marcheth away, the hindermost ranke of all (keeping still the devision) maketh readie, and being ready, the Souldiers in that ranke turne altogether to the right hand, and give fire, Marching presently away a good round pace to the Front, and there place themselves in Ranke together, just before the Front, As soone as the first Ranke turne, to give fire, the Ranke next it makes ready, and doth as the former, and so the rest.⁸¹

Next to the Carriage of armes, you shall teach the knowledge of Distance or Separation of places, being accounted a certaine orderly space betweene File and File, Ranke and Ranke, in such order and measure as the Captaine shall be disposed to nominate, which not being obeyed, the whole body of the Battalia is put out of order, and neither carrying proportion, nor true shape, are as men in rout or disorder; Therefore it ought carefully (of all things) to be observed and used according to the limitation or fitnelle of every Motion; For the Stations of all Military persons, and the Motions in Armes, are not alwayes certaine, or in one steady rule, but doe continually interchange and alter agreeable one with another; And the use of this Distance, which is called Closest, that is to say, Pouldron to pouldron, or Shoulder to Shoulder, or when they stand or march at the second Distance, which is called the Close, and is a foote and a halfe distance man from man; or when they stand or march at the fourth and last Distance, which is called Open Order, and is sixe foote betweene person and person.

So likewise in Rankes to stand or march Closest is to be at the Swords poynt; to stand, or march Close is three foote, to stand, or march at Order, is sixe foote; and to stand or march at Open-Order, is ever twelve foote.

Now there be some Commanders which vary in the nomination of the these termes, though not in Quantitie or Difiance, for they will have Close in Files to be Pouldron to Pouldron; Order, a foote and an halfe; Open-Order three foote, and Double-distance sixe foote, and so omit the word Closest.

And so likewise in Rankes, Close they will have to the Swords point, Order three foote, Open-Order six foote and Double-distance twelve foote, and so not the Closest at all.

Others vary it another way, and will have but three Distances, that is to say; Open Order, which they will have to be six foote both betweene ranke and fyle; Order three foote betweene Ranke and Fyle; and Close order a foote and an halfe betweene Ranke and Ranke, and when they come to open Rankes, then they commande Double-distance also, which they make twelve foote, and so by steps come to the fourth distance also, but I preferre the first discipline; and hold the words fully as significant and most in use, which above all things are to be esteemed and imitated.

Now to take the true measure of these Distances, because the eye is but an uncertaine Judge, you shall take the distance of sixe foote between fyle and fyle, by commanding the Souldiers (as they stand) to stretch forth their armes, and stand so removed one from another, that their handes may meete. To take the distance of three foote between fyle and fyle, you shall make the Souldiers set their armes a kenbow, and put themselves so close that their elbowes may meere, and to take the distance of a foote and an halfe, every other Souldier in the Ranke shall set one arme a kenbowe, and his fellow shall neare touch it; And thus likewise in Rankes wee take the distance of sixe foote, when the but ends of the Pikes do almost reach their heeles that march before. Three foote in Ranke is when they come almost to the Swords poynt; and twelve foote is the length of Pike charged ever.⁸²

Next unto distance of Place, is to be taught Marches and Motions, and in teaching of Marches, after every man knowes his place, and is willed to observe his fyle and ranke; In a plaine March, there is no hardnesse, nor yet in a Counter-march, if the Leaders of the fyles be well chosen, and that every man observe well him that goes next before him. Besides, if there be any little disorder, the Officers keeping a good eye, and being every one of them in their due place, will easily reforme it.⁸³

The head of the Troope or Band is for the Captaine, and the Reare for the Lieutenant, except it be in a Retrayt, and then the Captaine should be in the Reare, and the Lieutenant at the Head. The Ensigne (in an ordinary Battalia) upon the head behinde the Captaine, or within a Ranke thereof. But marching in an extended Battayle, then in the heart or midst of the Pikes. The Drummes are in a square Battalia to beate before the right and left wings.⁸⁴ But in an extended Battayle, the eldest drumme shall beate betweene the third and fourth ranke of Shot, which followeth next after the Captaine. The second drumme shall attend the Ensigne; and the third (if there be so many in one Companie) shall beate betweene the third and fourth Ranke of Shot, which marcheth in the Reare next before the Lieutenant, the Phiphes (if there be more then one) the eldest shall march with the eldest Drumme; and the second shall attend on the Ensigne.⁸⁵ The Seargants are extravagantly to march on each side of the Company, and to see the Souldiers keepe their Rankes and Fyles, according to the Captaines appointment; as also to listen and performe any direction that shall come from the Captaine, or other Officer in chiefe; as also (upon any occasion) to leade loose and disbanded fyles of Shot in Skirmish, or els devisions of Pykes or Shot in ordinary Marches, where superior Officers are absent.

Now to these Marches, are added the teaching of Motions, because there are many such that are not Marches at all: As some without changing of place, in onely turning of their faces to the right hand or the left, or about (that is to say) the meere contrary way, to that they were at the Command given; which is necessarie if the enemy should charge of either side or behinde.⁸⁶

Some motions there are which change place; But yet no more then a remouing from one Ranke to another, or from one File to another, when as (commonly) though some doe remove, yet others stand still, and these kinde of Motions are doubling of Rankes or Fyles, whereby the Battalia is made broader or longer, as the Enemy or the ground you have, causeth you to make your Flankes, Fronts, Rankes, or Files greater or lesser.⁸⁷ And here is to be noted in this doubling of Rankes or Files, that Rankes when they double to the right hand, must ever turne to the left hand to come to their former places againe, and if they be doubled to the left hand, they must turne on the right hand to come to their first places againe; And Fyles when they are doubled to any hand, they are brought to their first places againe. And so having doubled your Rankes to any hand, by the doubling of Fyles to the contrary hand, you also bring them to their first places againe.

There is also to bee taught another Motion, in which all doe moue, and yet none doe march, which is the Opening and Closing either of Rankes or Fyles, and is of use not onely when you would have one Ranke passe through another, or the whole Body of the Battalia make a counter-march, but when we would draw the Battile quickly, and in order, more of one hand or other.

In teaching the Souldier how to know the sounds or beatings of the Drumme, you must make them observe not onely what the Drumme doth beat, as whether it be a Call, a March, a Troope, a Battalia, a Charge, a Retrait, a Batterie, a Relief, and so forth, but also what time he keepes, foreuer according to the measure of time, the Souldier is to march flower or faster, to charge with greater violence, or to come off with greater speed, also he shall know when by the Drum to attend his Captaines directions, when to repayre to his Colours, and when to doe other duties.⁸⁸ And many other beatings as occasion shall administer, and as by the sound of the Drum, you doe teach your Souldiers to march, so by the voice (at their first instruction) you shall teach them all other motions.⁸⁹

To make them therefore perfect in these and all other Motions, it is good to vse them to some certaine words, which being once learned; will serve for direction; and they must be the words, now most in vse in our English Armies.⁹⁰

The words which are now in vse, both here and in the Netherlands, are these and such like now following.

First for all Motions in generall, they must eyther be in Distance, or in Forme. If in Distance, it must either be in File, or Rank, or in both together. If the motion be in distance of Files, it must either be in closing or in opening; If in closing then your words of proper directions are these. First having drawne your Battayle in order you shall say⁹¹......

And all these three motions you shall doe either closest, close, to Order, or to open order.

If in distance of Ranke, then also in closing or opening; if in closing........then

And hereein is to bee noted that Rankes when they open, ought (for the most part) to open downeward, turning to the Reare and if they close, it must ever be upward to the Front.

Lastly if motion in distance, be both of Rankes and Files at one instant, then you shall say...

Now if it be in motion in forme, it is also in files, in rankes and in files and rankes both together.

And this counter-march may bee done divers wayes and manners, as after the manner of the Macedonians, the Lacedemonians, the Persians; or our late and more moderne vse and fashion, and all these motions must be done to some one or other order as aforesaide.

In the manner as formerly in fyles according to severall Nations, & when you will Counter-march to the right hand, the first rank of Leaders onely must advance one step forward with the right leg and then turne, and all the other ranks must march first vp to the place from whence the first ranke did counter- march beefore they turne; So likewise, if you will counter-march to the left hand, the first rankes must stepp forward, one stepp with the left legge, and then turne, and all the other rankes behind must come vp to that place before they turne as before; The same order is to be obserued, when you will counter-march your files; Also in counter-marching, though-both are here fer downe for distinction sake, you are to name neither Rankes nor Files, but are onely to say......

Now if it be Motion in forme, both in Files and Ranks jointly together, when the words of direction are⁹²......

Now to reduce any of these words of direction to the same order or station in which the Souldier stood before they were spoken, you shall say......

Now in these words of generall directions, this is principally to be regarded, that in charging with Pikes, halfe the Rankes are but to charge their Pikes, and the other halfe to carrie them advanced, or ported, so neare the heads of the formost as they may doe them no annoyance, either in Charging or Retyring: and they must also obserue when they doe Charge standing to fall backe with the right foote, and Marching to step forward with the left.⁹³

There is also another motion in forme, which is the giving of fire by the Flanke, or by whole Fyles one after the another, which are strange to the Dutch, or Spanish, yet exceeding frequent with the Irish, and therefore necessary for our English vse.⁹⁴ And that is for the beating or Clay ring of Paces (which are narrow strait wayes through Woods and Bogs) and the words of direction are......

Now for the most of these words there can be hardly better chosen. But it is not so materiall what words you first choose to traine by; as it is to vse some words constantly:⁹⁵ and yet the same words should bee used generally through the Troopes of an Armie, or else it will breed confusion. And if it also generally in the discipline of one Kingdome, it were better and more absolute. And thus much touching March and Motion; which is nothing else but an actuall working of the bodie, contained in foure severall circumstances: The first being a marching forward (as charging to the Front) the second backward (as by retrayt) the third sidewaives (as by closing, opening or doubling of files to either hand) and the last Wheeling (as by conversion or turning to either hand) all which must be performed as occasion shall be offered to the vnderstanding of the Commander, observing every motion in true order, place, distance, and posture. All other motions in the mayne body of a Battalia being nothing but the parents of disorder and confusion; For Militarie Art, by the opinions of the Auncients, is onely the true Science of Warlike Motion, or the Emperiall Art of comely and well ordering of battayles, Armes, Gestures, and Motions, any of which will not indure monstrous shapes or vncomely faces.

Next vnto these words of generall motions, wee will place the words of particular motions, which onely conceroe the manage, vse, and carriage of weapons.⁹⁶ And these kinde of motion are called in our present discipline Postures, that is, The true forme of men in Armes, carrying all manner of materiall weapons (in every motion whatsoever) in the comeliest, readiest, and easiest way both to offend⁹⁷ and defend, and not onely making every thing they doe very delightfull to the eye, but also taking away all dangers and disorders which might be otherwise happen, either through ignorance or rudenesse.

To speake then first of those Postures which belong vnto the Pike, and are published by the most excellent prince, the Count Maurice of Naffau, Prince of Orange; they are in number sixteene; That is to say, three which are exprest standing; sixe marching; and seaven charging.

As touching the Postures which belong to the Musquet, they are forty in number, and are to bee done; Five standing, three marching; eight-teene charging; and fourteene discharging: And are onely for Military instruction in the time of Trayning, and to make the Souldier most exquisite and perfect.⁹⁹ But in the time of present Service before the face of the enemy, or in fight, then all this great number of Postures, the Captaine shall reduce into three onely and no more.

The three Postrures or words of Command, which are vsed for the Musquet in the face of the enemie, in Fight, or in Skirmish, are these¹⁰⁰.......

The Postures or words of Command which are vsed in ordinary Trayning, or daily exercising of the Souldiers, are these following......

Now touching the Postures of the Hargobus, I hold it needlesse here to insist or stand vpon them, since they are all one with the Musquet, (the Rest onely excepted) and whosoever is a good Musquetier cannot chuse but bee a good Hargelitier.¹⁰⁴ And therefore I referre it to mens particular practice. And to make a Connexion of all that is before said, I would with every industrious Teacher, first to respect his men; then their Armes, and to sort and place each man according to his worth and cunning, not with his wealth or birth; Then for his lessons, first to bring him to an exquisite readinesse in the Postures and true manage of weapons; Next to make him know all the Sounds or Beatings of the Drum. Thirdly, the true distance of places and orderly proportions; Fourthly, the execution thereof in all manner of Marches and Motions, And lastly, a generall performance of all that hath beene spoken in the practice of Skirmishes and alteration of the Battalions. So shall men become readie and not confused, as may are by silken and simple Tutors, who strive to teach may things together, but nothing in order.¹⁰⁵

Now for as much as dignitie is a most needfull Knowledge for every Commander, both for the adornment of the Band, and the encouragement of the well deserving Souldier, I will shew you here a Table, containing the honor and dignitie of Place, as they have beene observed by the most auncient Masters of Martiall discipline.

The Front
Left Flank	2	6	10	14	18	17	13	9	5	1	Right Flank
	42	46	50	54	58	57	53	49	45	41
	62	66	70	74	78	77	73	69	65	61
	82	86	90	94	98	97	93	89	85	81
	28	32	36	40	39	35	31	27	23	24
	22	26	30	34	38	37	33	29	25	21
	84	88	92	96	100	99	95	91	87	83
	64	68	72	76	80	79	75	71	67	63
	44	48	52	56	60	59	53	51	47	43
	4	8	12	16	20	19	15	11	7	3
The Reare

Now for the Vse of this Table, you shall understand, that the figure I. which standeth on the right hand, is the Leader of the right hand Fyle, and so the first and chiefest man in the Battalia, and that whole Ranke in which it standeth is the Front, so called, because the faces of the whole Companie are directed one way, and also every man in that Ranke is called the Leader or Captaine of the Fyle he leadeth. The figure 2. which leadeth the left hand Fyle is the second man. And the figure 3. (which is in the Reare) because there the backes are turned, is the third man, and the whole Ranke in which it standeth is called the Reare, or the Bringersup. Then the figure 4. is the fourth man, & so forth according to the number of the figures, are the dignities of the places.¹⁰⁷

Now here is also to be noted in this Table, that the figure 17. standing in the Front, is the Leader of the middle fyle to the left Flanke; and the figure 18. Leader of the middle fyle to the right Flanke; and so are called Leaders of the mayne devision.¹⁰⁸

The fifth Ranke from the Front downeward towards the Reare, are called Middlemen, to the reare, & the sixt Ranke are called Middlemen to the front, or the Leaders of halfe fyles.¹⁰⁹

Lastly, whensoever this Bodie, or any other whatsoever (which containeth but ten persons in fyle) shall be divided in the midst betweene the Middlemen, then the last five Rankes to the Reareward are called by the name of Subdevision.¹¹⁰ And whensoever the Reare shall double the Front, then are the Reare called Bringers up, because they bring up their halfe Fyles by Sequence.

These Rules knit unto memorie, and practiced with care and diligence, will make any Souldier perfect in the first sixe parts of Martiall discipline, as Election of men; Sorting of Armes March of Motion; Distance; Posture; and lastly, the beatings of the Drumme.¹¹¹

Now to these I will adde a little touch or Essay touching the Carriage, Election, and Composition of Captaines colours, or Ensignes, which is the honorable Badge or Marke of every Captaine, and in which both of late here at home, and also formerly in forraine Nations, I have seene as grosse absurdities, as any malice would wish to see in the folly of his Enemy, which doubtlesse must proceed from ignorance, since no Master of Reason would be guiltie of his owne injurie.¹¹²

You shall therefore understand, that all Colours belonging unto private Captaines, ought to be mixt equally of two severall Colours, that is to say (according to the rule in Herauldry) of Colour and Mettall, and not Colour on Colour, as Greene and Red, or Blew and Blacke, or such like, not yet Metall, as White and Yellow, or Orangtawanie and White, for Colours so borne shew Bastardie, Pesantrie, or dishonor.¹¹³ Now in the Corner which is next to the upper poynt of the staffe, he shall carrie in a faire large square, or Canton containing a sixt part of the Colours, a plaine red Crosse in a white Field, (which is the Ensigne of our Kingdome of England).¹¹⁴ If the Colours dow belong to a Colonel, they shall then be all of one entire Colour, or one Mettall, onely the red Crosse or Ensigne of the Kingdome shall be in his due place, as aforesaid.¹¹⁵ If they belong to a Colonel-generall, to the Lord Marshall of the Field, or any such Superior Officer, then they shall be all of one entire Colour, or Mettall, and the red Crosse or Ensigne of the Kingdome, shall be in a very dutie square or Canton, as in a twelft part of the Field, or lesse if it please them.¹¹⁶ But if they belong to the Generall of the Field, then they shall bo of one entire Colour or Mettall, without any red Crosse at all, as was before said.

Now for a more particular election and use thereof, you shall understand, that every Gentleman of Coate.¹¹⁷ Armour (being a private Captaine) ought to carry for his Colours, those two principall Colours which are contained in his Coate Armour, being the Field, and the chiefe charge thereof; which that no Ignorance may be busie to finde out, they are evermore contained in the Bandrole; upon which his Crest standeth Being indeed a true type or figure of his Colours wreathed together, as the Support of his honor.

Now in as much as Captaines are not all Gentlemen of Coate Armour, and to take unto themselves (in these dayes) a more particular freedome, affirming that honor is not Buckled to them, but to their vertues. And that vertue consists not in the same of Auncestors, but in their owne Action, and defences of their Countries, Mistresses, Widdowes, and the Oppressed: And so may suite or eleect their Colours, according to their hopes or imaginations. Taking (as it were) their honor from the parties they most reverence (which is a Paradoxe easily confused). I will here first shew you the nature and signification of Colours. And then some particular offences, in which an indifferent mixture being made, the Composition must needs be noble and wholesome.

You shall first then understand, that there be in Military honor nine severall faces, or Complexions, that is to say; two which be called Mettals, as Yellow and White, figuring Gold and Silver, and seaven which are called proper Colours, as Blacke, Blew, Red, Greene, Purple, Tunnis, and Ermine; figuring seaven percious stones, of whole natures here to speake were tedious and needlesse, and of these, as before I said, mettall may not be carried on mettall, nor Colour upon Colour.

Now for the significatons of these mettalls and Colours, you shall understand, that Yellow betoketh Honor, or height of spirit, which being never separate from vertue, of all things is most jealous of disgrace and may not indure the least shadow of Imputation.

White signifieth Wisedome and Sobrietie, together with a severe correction of too much Ambition, being mixt with yellow; or too much Beliefe and Levitie, being joyned with White.

Red signifieth Justice, or noble and worthy Anger, in defence of Religion, or the Oppressed.

Greene signifieth good Hope, or the accomplishment of holy and honorable Actions.

Purple, signifieth Fortitude with discretion, or a most true discharge of any Trust reposed.

Ermine (which is onely a rich Furre with curious spots) signifieth Religion,or holinesse, and that all aymes are at divine objects.

Now from these Colours, and their mixtures, are derived many bastard and dishonorable Colors, as Carnation, Orgentawnie, Popeniay, and such like, all which have bastardly significations, as Craft, pride, wantonesse, and such like, of which who so is desirous to understand, let him looke into Du Tillet, and other French Authors, and he shall gaine satisfaction. For mine owne part, since they appeartaine not unto honor, I will here omit them, and to those free spirits that have gained these noble places; from these considerations leave them to their owne Elections, and Compositions, with these few advertisements following.

First, He that in his Colours shall carry full Coate-Armour, doth indiscreetly, for he puts that honor to hazard, which he may with more honor keepe in safery, and inticeth his enemie by such ostentation to darre beyond his owne nature.

He that in his Colours beareth any one blacke spot, and no more; if it be round, square, or of any equall proportion, it shewes some blemish in the owner and that his life is not voyd of some notorious scandall.

If the spot be of vnequall proportion, that is, no longer or broader one way then another, it signifieth Funerall, or deadly Revenge; for such a spot is called an Hearse.

He that carryeth a Word in his Colours without a devise, carrieth a Soule without a Bodie.

He that carrieth both Word and devise, carrieth both Soule and bodie, yet if the devise carrie any humane shape, it is a grosse bodie, and if the Word containe above three or foure words at the most (except it be the latter end, or beginning of some Verse) it is an imperfect Soule: But if both Word and devise be compleate, That is, Embleme, yet they are much fitter for Maskes, Triumphes, or Pageants, then the Field, or reall Action; for the true mixture of Colours is devise enough for every Foote Souldier.

Now to conclude and knit up this fleight Discourse, with the true Cement which bindeth all the former duties faithfully together, every Souldier must especially regard obedience, a worke which is contained in three Circumstances, and euery Circumstance adorned with an especial vertue. The first is Reverence from the Inferior to the Superior in which is expressed Love. The second, a Readinesse to take directions, and a willingnesse to be commanded, which is a performance of dutie: and last, in the allowing of his Captaines Opinion, and approving his judgement; which is a certaine Character of modestie, wisedome, and discretion. For that Captaine cannot be laid to be perfect, that wants vertue worthie of Reverence; Authoritie fit for commandment; or Experience able to direct and censure his Actions. And he that hath these, hath that Sufficiencie, that to disobey, is to die, as witnesseth all the best of the Romanes, who never spared any in that capitall and grosse trespasse of absurd disobedience. And to this I must also adde, that the tyrannie of Captaines in commanding with too great rigor, is as offensive as the former disobedience: For as Montaigne faith; The Authoritie of them which teach, often hinders these that would learne. And therefore nothing like manly Couttessie doth become a Commander.

When the English government received several able-bodied recruits for military service, they were unaware of the growing technologial change in the military or how their soldiers were going to be trained. The literature of war was an important and essential element in the defence of England and its soldiers against their foreign adversaries. Jeremy Goring and Barbara Donagan, believed that England's military status in Europe at the start of the Tudor period was inadequate. Goring mentioned that "the most serious...problem...was the inadequacy of the nation's military organization."¹¹⁸ J. R. Hale and Charles Oman have argued that formal military education played a significant role in the preparation of soldiers in England because of the technological changes that were taking place in the nation's military system. Donagan viewed the literature as providing "a broad and utilitarian education for civilians and professionals."¹¹⁹ Military contemporaries like Gervase Markham changed England's status as a military power. His book, The Sovldiers Accidence, aided the English military in matters pertaining to military training, discipline and culture. This was one of the many contributions that Markham made to England's military education.¹²⁰ Other military contemporaries guided the English military toward the new science and art of war. Without these reference works, England, quite possibly would not have accomplished their military conquests during the 18th and 19th Centuries.

The Seven Years' War (1757-1763) was an excellent example. The English were losing during the first half of the war due to their incompetent leaders. Some of them were replaced, who followed standard military procedure which produced victory in 1763, defeating Louis XIV of France.

1. See Jeremy Goring, Social Change and Military Decline in Mid-Tudor England, History, 60 (1975). Goring states, "One major cause of concern was England's lack of manpower; in the 1530s and 1540s there seems to have been a widespread belief that the population of the country was falling," p. 185.

2. Barbara Donagan, Halcyon Days and the Literature of War: England's Military Education Before 1642, Past and Present, No. 147, May 1995, p. 67.

8. Ibid., p. 187, from R. Morison, An Exhortation to Styrre all Englyshmen to the Defense of theyr Countreye (1539), p. 22. He did not point out, however, that equestrian standards had increased in the meantime.

9. Charles Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages: Volume II, 1278-1485, Franklin Publishing: New York, 1924. Charles Oman suggests that England was prepared for war, "essentially fitted for defensive battles only," p. 426. The science of war theory is related to being more offensive. There was a growing concern in England's military technique. Oman stated that there was a "lively controversy going on during the last period of the Hundred Years' War between those who favoured the English system of dismounting the man-at-arms and using him as a support for infantry--whether armed with a bow, crossbow, or hand-gun--and those who thought that mounted men might be as effective as dismounted for that purpose," p. 428. An example of an offensive military attack would be Charles VIII's invasion of Italy in 1494 which was the beginning of the Italian Wars. Other characteristics of the art of war was the increasing use of field artillery, p. 430. Guns became effective for offensive battles after the 15th century which also the era of large standing armies, p. 431.

10. Barbara Donagan, Halcyon Days and the Literature of War: England's Military Education Before 1642, p. 68.

11. J. R. Hale, The Military Education of the Officer Class in Early Modern Europe, Renaissance War Studies, London, 1983, p. 225.

12. Charles Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, Volume II, 1278-1485, p. 435.

14. Donagan, Halcyon Days and the Literature of War: England's Military Education Before 1642, p. 89.

15. Charles Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, Volume II, 1278-1485, p. 400. Oman says, "By the end of the war the English officers and men had lost the old confidence, which had distinguished them in the days when the French still persisted in keeping to their former tactics of grand assaults in mass against well-chosen positions."

16. J. S. A. Adamson, Chivalry and Political Change in Caroline England, Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England, Stanford University Press: Stanford, 1993, p. 161.

17. See C. G. Cruickshank, Elizabeth's Army, Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1966, pp.143-144. At some times, the soldier's money exchanged hands. The treasurer would keep a percentage for himself; then pass the money to the captain who would also keep a percentage for himself. Therefore, the soldiers would be broke and would go on strike, leaving the monarchy without means of protection against a domestic or foreign invasion. Cruickshank viewed this as an atrocity. He states, "There was no provision for saving. This meant that if he were cheated out of a single penny his standard of living immediately went below the subsistence level; and the more he was cheated the more difficult it became to support his life," p. 143.

18. Barbara Donagan, Atrocity, War Crime, and Treason in the English Civil War, American Historical Review, October 1994, p. 1142.

21. C. G. Cruickshank, Army Royal: Henry VIII's Invasion of France, 1513, Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1969, p. 96.

22. See Barbara Donagan, Atrocity, War Crime, and Treason and the English Civil War, American Historical Review, pp. 1137-1166, or C. G. Cruickshank, Army Royal: Henry VIII's Invasion of France, 1513 pp. 94-104, or C. G. Cruickshank, Elizabeth's Army, pp. 159-173. These sources provide an excellent account of the disciplinary procedures that the army faced.

26. Goring, p. 193, from T. Elyot, The Boke named the Governout, H. H. S. Croft ed., 1883, i, p. 303.

28. Ian Gentles, The New Model Army in England, Ireland and Scotland, 1645-1653, Blackwell: Oxford, 1992, p. 106.

30. Barbara Donagan, Atrocity, War Crime, and Treason in the English Civil War, p. 1150.

32. Cruickshank, Army Royal: Henry VIII's Invasion of France, 1513, p. 95. This form of punishment was regulated by Richard II in 1385, for men who served in the army and navy.

33. Charles Carlton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638- 1651, Routledge: New York, 1992, p. 93.

44. Ibid., p. 3. Quoted from a letter written by Field Marshall Wavell to Basil Liddell Hart. Although this letter was written during the Second World War, it defines the atrocity of war.

46. Goring, p. 186, from J. F. D. Shrewsbury, A History of Bubonic Plague, Cambridge, 1970, pp. 181-183.

48. Ibid., from The Papers of George Wyatt, D. M. Loades ed., Royal Historical Society, Camden Series, 1968, p. 171.

49. Charels Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, Volume II, 1278-1485, p. 399.

50. See Donagan, "Halcyon Days and the Literature of War: England's Military Education Before 1642," p. 89.

51. This book is also known as A Treatise in Commendation of Henry, Earl of Oxenford, Henry, Earl of Southampton, Robert, Earle of Essex and Robert Bartue, Lord Willoughby of Eresby.

52. Sir Leslie Stephen and Sir Sydney Lee, eds., The Dictionary of National Biography: From the Earliest Times to 1900, Vol. XII, Oxford University Press: Glasgow, 1959-1960, pp. 1051-1053.

53. It is likely that books written for the purpose of military education were written for the captains to train their men since a lot of the people living at the time could not read.

54. Gervase Markham, The Sovldiers Accidence, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum: Norwood, N. J.: W. J. Johnson, 1974, p.1.

58. (The meaning of Accidence is the part of grammar dealing with changes in form of words).

68. (Ten men stand in line. The first fires his weapon and immediately flees, allowing the other men to fire their weapons as quickly as possible).

69. (Markham discusses the importance of night watch, if someone tried to ambush their military campaign. That is the reason why disciplinary measures were so severe against men who fell asleep on night watch. He also explains that if an enemy was caught and he did not surrender or comply with his capture's, he had to be killed).

70. (It was important to oil and clean their weapons. If a weapon was not maintained properly, it would not function properly).

72. (Soldiers had to be told where they should stand during battle. The sound of the drum and words of direction served as signals to what the soldier had to accomplish).

80. (After the first two ranks give fire, the second two ranks should already be prepared to fire at the enemy. This is sort of a form of rapid fire).

85. (The orders that the drum should be beaten. The drum serves as a signal for the soldiers).

89. (The beating of the drum also aided the soldiers in other ways. For example, in which direction they should march. The words used by the commanders are also important. They help guide the soldier in the right direction).

90. Vse of Words. (Gervase describes the language which the souldiers should use).

91. (The following are directions in which a soldier should open and close, their ranks and files).

92. (These are the signals for motion when files and ranks are joined together).

94. (Markham is probably stating that since the Irish use this system, than the English should as well. Maybe to understand it so they know what to expect if they are ever attacked by the Irish which was probable during the time).

95. (Words can be chosen randomly to train by and use during battle. The words should be chosen by the commander. But, a pattern should be established to eliminate confusion).

97. (Markham expresses the importance of an army to fight offensively. Charles Oman felt the same way. He stated that the English lost the Hundred Years' War because they were too defensive. See Oman, Charles, The History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, Volume II, 1278-1485, p. 400).

98. (These standards are important, especially for Pikemen to learn the proper way of using their pikes to their maximum potential).

100. (Firing musquets in a quick and orderly fashion was essential. When the men are standing in ranks and files, they had to be prepared to fire rapidly for the full effect of their attack).

103. (The way in which a soldier carried his musquet was significant, probably to reduce the number of accidents that the army experienced before).

107. (The duties of the soldiers in this battle plan correspond to the numbers that are listed in the table).

114. (Each soldier received a colour that he must wear. The colours are important because they signified what type of a soldier he was; whether he was a commander, a captain, a good soldier or a person that could not make it as a soldier).

119. Donagan, Halcyon Days and the Literature of War: England's Military Education Before 1642, p. 68.

120. Gervase Markham wrote several other books that influenced the English military. They include; The Art of Archerie, Markham's Maister-piece, A School for Young Soldiers, and The Soldiers Grammar.

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